Parenting Styles: Effect on Child Development and Child Psychology

Parenting styles are distinct behaviors, attitudes, and strategies parents use in raising children. Diana Baumrind’s research in the 1960s introduced three main parenting styles, authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. Maccoby and Martin later added the uninvolved style.

The authoritative parenting style balances warmth, support, and high expectations, promoting independence and open communication. Authoritative parents set clear guidelines, enforce reasonable rules, and use positive reinforcement rather than harsh discipline. This approach fosters higher self-esteem, social skills, and emotional regulation, though some children feel pressured by high expectations.

The authoritarian parenting style is strict and demands obedience without question, prioritizing discipline over warmth and open communication. Children raised with authoritarian parents often develop anxiety, low self-esteem, and struggle with emotional regulation. This parenting style is linked to higher rates of depression, non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), and school bullying involvement.

The permissive parenting style is highly nurturing but lacks structure, discipline, and firm expectations. Permissive parents act more like friends than authority figures, leading to children struggling with self-regulation and authority. Research shows mixed results, with some children developing high self-esteem while others experience behavioral issues and entitlement.

The uninvolved parenting style is characterized by emotional neglect, minimal involvement, and a lack of structure or expectations. Children raised by uninvolved parents tend to have the worst developmental outcomes, including low self-esteem, poor academic performance, and higher risks of mental health issues. Extreme neglect often leads to disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED).

Parenting styles affect child development in emotional, social, cognitive, and behavioral areas. Authoritative parenting is linked to the most positive outcomes, while authoritarian and uninvolved parenting styles are associated with higher risks of mental health disorders. Parenting styles also shape attachment styles, motivation, and long-term psychological well-being.

Cultural background, socioeconomic status, family upbringing, and parental stress influence parenting styles. Studies show that parents tend to change their parenting style over time, with authoritative parenting being the most beneficial. Combining parenting styles is effective if at least one parent adopts an authoritative approach.

Expectant mothers consider parenting styles during pregnancy are more prepared for responsive and effective parenting. Research indicates that early parental responsiveness fosters secure attachment and positive child development. Choosing an authoritative parenting style is widely recommended for promoting healthy emotional and cognitive growth in children.

What are Parenting Styles?

Parenting styles are the distinct patterns of behaviors, attitudes, strategies, and approaches parents adopt when raising and interacting with their children. Parenting styles gained significant attention in the 1960s, mainly due to the research of developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind at the University of California, Berkeley.

What are the Types of Parenting Styles?

The 4 types of parenting styles are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. This Baumrind categorization distinguishes the difference in the demands and responsiveness dimensions of parents when rearing kids.

Authoritative Parenting Style

Authoritative parenting combines high demandingness with warmth, support, and responsiveness. Authoritative parents are nurturing, responsive, and supportive while demanding, setting firm limits, and maintaining clear guidelines. Authoritative parents encourage independence and open communication. This approach is often associated with positive outcomes in children, such as higher self-esteem and better social skills.

Authoritative parenting style is a well-balanced and effective parenting style. Authoritative parenting is characterized by a nurturing and supportive approach combined with firm limits and clear expectations.

Authoritative parents are highly responsive to their children’s needs while demanding that their children’s behavior meet high standards by setting clear guidelines and boundaries. Authoritative parents enforce reasonable rules fairly and consistently, fostering a close relationship with their children.

The authoritative approach uses reasoning and open communication to help children understand the importance of rules and the agreed-upon consequences of their actions. Authoritative parents explain and discuss family rules in an age-appropriate way. Authoritative parents are firm and flexible at the same time. Authoritative parents listen to the child’s viewpoint and consider differing opinions while maintaining control. The authoritative parenting style is sometimes called the democratic parenting style.

One of the distinct features of authoritative parenting is the ability to regulate children’s behavior by setting high standards and using positive reinforcement rather than punishing or imposing stringent rules. Authoritative parents provide children with the necessary tools and encouragement to meet expectations. Parents act as role models, praising their children’s efforts and successes and helping them learn from their mistakes. An authoritative parenting style is tough but fair. Authoritative parents focus on children’s overall well-being.

How Does Authoritative Parenting Affect a Child?

Authoritative parenting affects a child’s development, resulting in higher self-esteem, better social skills, and greater psychological maturity. Children of authoritative parenting tend to have the best outcomes. Therefore, authoritative parenting is widely recognized as the most effective parenting style.

Children with authoritative parents are confident, responsible, and capable of managing emotions. Children are friendly, curious, and achievement-oriented. Children from authoritative households typically develop strong social skills, positive behavior, and good judgment. Children are less likely to have behavioral problems, rebel against authority figures, or engage in reckless behavior or haste decisions.

Children thrive under the balance of guidance and support. Authoritative parenting creates an environment where children grow into confident and capable individuals, according to a 2011 study from Malaysia titled “Effects of Parenting Style on Children Development,” conducted by Zulkifli Mohamad et al. at Universiti Kebangsaan and published in World Journal of Social Sciences.

The authoritative parenting style has many advantages, but there are also disadvantages. Some children feel pressured to meet high expectations, while others struggle in environments that lack structure. Some children resist the structure of this parenting style. The authoritative parenting approach generally takes more time to implement as parents must explain the reasons behind the rules and adapt to individual children’s temperaments.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high demands, strict rules, and an expectation of blind obedience. Authoritarian parents prioritize discipline and control, often with little warmth, nurturing, or responsiveness.

Authoritarian parenting style is a strict, overbearing parenting approach where parents impose rigid rules and expect unwavering obedience from children without offering explanations or room for discussion. Authoritarian parents have high expectations and demand that these standards be met without question. A lack of responsiveness, feedback, and warmth marks authoritarian parenting. Parents focus more on control and discipline than nurturing their children’s emotional needs. Children must follow the rules and not voice their opinions. Any deviation from the rules or negotiation is met with severe punishment.

A distinct feature of authoritarian parenting is the absence of compromise. Authoritarian parents are despotic parents who set the rules, and children are expected to obey them. The dictatorial approach leads to one-way communication from the parent to the child. The child learns that their voice and feelings are not valued.

Authoritarian parenting often leads to immediate compliance, according to a 2017 study from India titled “Effect of Authoritarian Parenting Style on Self-esteem of the Child: A Systematic Review,” conducted by Shraddha Tripathi et al. at the University Madhya Pradesh and published in International Journal of Advance Research and Innovative Ideas in Education. Authoritarian parenting is more prevalent in families with low socioeconomic status (SES), according to a 2016 study titled “Authoritarian parenting attitudes and social origin: The multigenerational relationship of socioeconomic position to childrearing values,” by Michael Friedson, published in Child Abuse & Neglect.

How Does Authoritarian Parenting Affect a Child?

Authoritarian parenting negatively affects a child’s development, often resulting in internalizing problems, such as anxiety and depression, or externalizing problems, such as aggressive behavior and conduct issues. Children with authoritarian parents tend to be unhappy, anxious, insecure, moody, and aimless. Children have poorer emotion regulation, self-esteem, and social skills. Children are less communicative, struggling with self-expression and decision-making.

Experts generally do not recommend the authoritarian parenting style, associated with worse outcomes than authoritative parenting. The overbearing nature of authoritarian parenting hinders children’s ability to develop independence and emotional regulation, which are crucial for success in adulthood. Depressive symptoms and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) are more prevalent in children with authoritarian parents, according to a 2022 study titled “Depressive symptoms mediate the association between maternal authoritarian parenting and non-suicidal self-injury among Chinese adolescents” by Cai-Rui Liu et al., published in Journal of affective disorders. Children involved in school bullying are more likely to come from authoritarian households.

Permissive Parenting Style

Permissive parenting (indulgent) is marked by high warmth and responsiveness and low expectations, rules, and structure. Permissive parents are loving, nurturing, and communicative but struggle with discipline because few rules or boundaries are enforced. Children are allowed significant freedom and autonomy.

Permissive parenting style is nurturing but exerts little control over children’s behavior. Permissive parents act more like friends than authority figures. Permissive parents have minimal rules and discipline, allowing children significant freedom to figure things out for themselves. Communication between parent and child is open, but the emphasis is on allowing the child to make decisions independently. A permissive parenting style rarely enforces discipline, leading to the absence of clear parent-child boundaries.

The permissive parenting style is the opposite of the authoritarian style, which involves low warmth, high expectations, and a structured environment. Permissive parenting lacks the structure and clear rules children need to navigate social expectations. Permissive parents avoid confrontation and bribe children to manage their behavior instead of using consistent discipline. Permissive parenting lacks clear expectations for children’s behavior, such as cleaning up after themselves.

How Does Permissive Parenting Affect a Child?

Permissive parenting tends to have worse effects on children compared to authoritative parenting. Research shows that children raised with a permissive parenting style tend to struggle with self-regulation and authority. Children find it difficult to adapt to environments that require discipline and order. Other negative consequences include entitlement, poor impulse control, and difficulties in social settings due to the lack of structure and clear boundaries, according to a 2014 study from Japan titled “The Impact of Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive Parenting Styles on Children’s Later Mental Health in Japan: Focusing on Parent and Child Gender,” by Toshinori Kitamura et al., published in the Journal of child and family studies.

However, recent research on permissive parenting has found mixed results on child outcomes. Some studies have found that permissive parenting is associated with higher self-esteem than authoritarian and uninvolved parenting, according to a 2021 study titled “Influence of Parenting Styles and Peer Attachment on Life Satisfaction Among Adolescents: Mediating Role of Self-Esteem,” by Mudasir Aziz et al., published in The Family Journal. Other studies find that children with permissive parents tend to have better parent-child relationships, which are protective against the negative effects of the parenting style, according to a 2019 study titled “Emerging adult psychological problems and parenting style: Moderation by parent-child relationship quality,” by Ellen H. Steele and Cliff McKinney, published in Personality and Individual Differences. Psychologists generally do not recommend the permissive parenting style due to its lack of control and structure necessary for children to learn and adapt to the rules of society.

Uninvolved Parenting Style

Uninvolved parenting style (neglectful) is characterized by a lack of responsiveness to a child’s needs and minimal demands or involvement in their life. Uninvolved parents provide basic necessities but are generally detached from their child’s emotional well-being and developmental needs.

Uninvolved parenting style (neglectful) shows a lack of supervision and affection towards children. Neglectful parents are indifferent and dismissive, showing little interest in their child’s life. Uninvolved parents do not utilize any particular disciplinary methods. There is no structure, guidance, or support. Communication between the parent and child is limited, and nurturing behavior is absent. Disengaged parents have little expectations for their child’s behavior, academic performance, or personal development, leading to an environment where the child feels unwanted and unvalued.

Uninvolved parenting sometimes involves complete neglect or occurs unintentionally, particularly in cases where parents are overworked, struggling with depression, or dealing with personal stressors that impede their ability to provide adequate care. The outcomes for children raised in this environment are often negative.

How Does Uninvolved Parenting Affect a Child?

Uninvolved parenting negatively affects a child’s development due to the lack of parental guidance and affection. Child outcomes tend to be the worst among the four parenting styles. Children with uninvolved parents tend to have low self-esteem and self-worth. Children show more anxiety, depression, and poor school performance.

Children raised with the uninvolved parenting style are at a higher risk of seeking inappropriate role models and struggle with forming healthy relationships. Neglected children develop disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED) in extreme cases. The absence of boundaries and supervision of uninvolved parenting increases the risk of children experiencing abuse or engaging in risky behaviors. A neglectful environment often results in mental health issues and developmental challenges, according to a 2019 study from India titled “Parenting styles and its Impact on Children – a cross-cultural review with a focus on India,” conducted by B. R. Sahithya et al. at St. John’s Medical College and published in Mental Health, Religion & Culture.

How Many Parenting Styles Did Diana Baumrind Identify?

Diana Baumrind identified three parenting types, authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive, based on parenting behaviors and the home’s emotional climate in her 1967 study, “Child Care Practices Anteceding Three Patterns of Preschool Behavior.” The fourth parenting style, uninvolved (or neglectful), was added by Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin at Stanford University in 1983. Maccoby and Martin identified a conceptual structure combining different levels of demandingness and responsiveness to distinguish the 4 parenting styles psychology in their 1983 book chapter “Socialization in the Context of the Family: Parent-Child Interaction” inside “Handbook of Child Psychology: Socialization, Personality and Social Development” (4th edition), edited by P.H. Mussen.

The 4 Diana Baumrind parenting styles, authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful, represent variations in demandingness and responsiveness in parents when raising children. Different parenting styles reflect different combinations of these factors, influencing the parent-child relationship and shaping the child’s development, according to a 2018 study titled “Parenting Styles and Parent-Adolescent Relationships: The Mediating Roles of Behavioral Autonomy and Parental Authority” by Kirby Deater-Deckard et al., published in Frontiers in psychology.

What Is Parenting?

Parenting is the act of caring and nurturing that shapes a child’s development from infancy through adolescence until adulthood. Parenting involves guiding and supporting a child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development to prepare children for life as productive adults, according to a 2022 study from India titled “The Effect of Parenting and the Parent-Child Relationship on a Child’s Cognitive Development: A Literature Review,” conducted by Shiv H Joshi et al. at Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences and published in Cureus.

Parents transmit learning expectations, cultural values, norms, beliefs, and goals at every stage of children’s upbringing to shape their ability to navigate life. Parenting style is the specific approach or method used within this process, influencing how parents interact with and guide their children. The chosen parenting style significantly impacts a child’s emotional, social, and cognitive outcomes. Parenting styles affect children’s development into capable, independent adults.

Parenting styles in psychology, such as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful, play a significant role in effectively achieving parenting goals. How parents approach their child’s upbringing, whether through an authoritative style that fosters confidence, higher self-esteem, and better social outcomes or through less structured approaches, affects children’s ability to navigate life and the world around them. For instance, children raised by authoritarian parents tend to struggle with self-esteem and exhibit negative behaviors. Children with authoritative parents are more likely to be confident, responsible, and self-regulated.

Parents shape children into capable, independent adults who contribute meaningfully to society through various parenting practices. These practices evolve into distinct parenting styles, directly impacting children’s academic achievements, social skills, emotional resilience, and ability to overcome challenges.

What Are The Best Tips On How To Be A Good Parent?

Being responsive, prioritizing the parent-child relationship, and helping your child develop emotional regulation are the best tips for becoming a good parent. Parent responsiveness promotes optimal brain development by supporting a child’s self-esteem, coping abilities, and overall well-being, according to a 2015 study by Louise Newman and others titled “Attachment And Early Brain Development Neuroprotective Interventions In Infant Caregiver Therapy” published in Translational Developmental Psychiatry. A positive child-parent relationship lays a strong foundation for long-term happiness and success. Emotional regulation is a crucial skill for mental health and social relationships. Helping a child develop self-regulation is one of the most important tips for becoming a good parent.

What are the Factors Affecting Parenting Styles?

Factors influencing parenting styles include family upbringing, parenting knowledge, cultural background, socio-economic status, personal characteristics, psychological factors, stress, goals, and expectations. The factors affecting parenting styles are listed below.

Parental Goals and Expectations: Parental goals and expectations shape parents’ strategies and behaviors. For example, some parents with high academic expectations adopt a more authoritative or structured parenting style, emphasizing discipline and routine to ensure academic success.

Family Upbringing: The way a parent was brought up in their childhood affects their parenting styles, according to a 2015 study in Canada titled, “Parenting begets parenting: A neurobiological perspective on early adversity and the transmission of parenting styles across generations,” by Clyde Hertzman, Alison S. Fleming et al., published in Neuroscience. The study details how one generation’s parenting styles are neurobiologically transmitted to the next generation through life experiences. For example, a child raised by an authoritarian parenting style tends to become an authoritarian parent.

Parenting Knowledge: When parents lack accurate information on child development, effective parenting, and family dynamics, they adopt familiar parenting styles. For most parents, this familiar style is the one they experienced during their upbringing. For example, parents raised by authoritarian parents do not realize that being firm and kind is possible. Their experience is limited to a firm and harsh parenting style, leaving them unaware of alternative approaches.

Cultural Backgrounds: Parenting styles are influenced by cultural backgrounds that share specific values, beliefs, customs, and practices. For example, in collectivist cultures emphasizing obedience and conformity, parents tend to adopt a more authoritarian parenting style.

Socio-economic Status (SES): Socio-economic status varies in income, education, occupation, and social status. SES significantly affects parenting style by affecting family resources and opportunities. For example, limited resources in lower-income families experience more stress, resulting in more authoritarian or neglectful parenting styles.

Personal Characteristics: Individual personality traits, behaviors, and temperaments define a parent’s characteristics. These characteristics influence the parent’s actions and decisions. For example, agreeable parents are more supportive. Agreeable parents tend to be authoritative, according to a 2010 research in the Netherlands titled “Personality and parenting style in parents of adolescents,” by Rutger CME Engels et al., published in the Journal of Adolescence.

Psychological Factors: Parents and children’s mental and emotional states influence their interactions. For example, parents with low self-efficacy tend to give up easily when faced with parental difficulties and, therefore, adopt an authoritarian style to control using harsh discipline, according to a 2022 study in China titled “Impact of Parenting Style on Early Childhood Learning: Mediating Role of Parental Self-Efficacy” by Kong, Chuibin and Fakhra Yasmin, published in Frontiers in Psychology.

Parenting Stress: Parental stress affects parenting style by impacting how parents interact with their children and manage daily challenges. Elevated stress levels lead to less patience, irritability, and inconsistent disciplinary practices. A stressed parent often reacts more harshly to minor misbehavior or struggles to provide the emotional support their child needs.

How Does Your Parenting Style Affect Your Kid?

Your parenting style affects your child’s academic success, mental well-being, self-esteem, behavior, emotional intelligence, parent-child relationship, social skills, and future relationships. Below are 8 key impacts of parenting styles on child development.

• Academics: Parenting style affects children’s school performance and overall learning through the level of support provided. For example, authoritative parents, who are supportive and set high expectations, tend to have children who achieve higher academically.
• Mental Health: Parenting style influences the mental well-being of children by creating an emotional climate at home. For example, nurturing authoritative parents raise kids with better mental health, while harsh authoritarian parents create a hostile environment, leading to anxiety in children.
• Self-Esteem: Parenting style shapes a child’s sense of self-worth and confidence through daily interactions. Warm and nurturing parents foster higher self-confidence in their children, whereas neglectful and uninvolved parents often cause children to feel unworthy of love, resulting in low self-esteem.
• Behavioral Outcomes: Parenting style affects children’s behavior through the standards set for conduct and the discipline and guidance provided. For example, permissive parenting tends to result in behavioral issues due to a lack of boundaries.
• Emotional Intelligence: Parenting styles influence children’s ability to understand and manage emotions. For example, authoritative parenting enhances emotional intelligence by modeling and teaching empathy and emotional regulation.
• Parent-Child Relationships: Parenting style directly impacts the parent-child relationship. For example, authoritative parenting fosters strong, positive relationships through open communication and mutual respect, while authoritarian parenting strains relationships due to fear and lack of trust.
• Social Skills: Different parenting styles affect children’s social skills by modeling human interactions and helping them develop emotional regulation. For example, permissive parenting often leads to difficulties in peer interactions due to a lack of discipline and regulation. In contrast, authoritative parenting promotes healthy social relationships by teaching social skills and empathy.
• Adult Relationships: Parenting style models interaction and communication with others, preparing children for adult relationships. For example, authoritarian parenting often results in difficulties due to poor conflict resolution skills, whereas adults raised by authoritative parents often form more stable and satisfying relationships.

Is the Authoritative Parenting Style Considered the Best Parenting Style in Child Psychology?

Yes, the authoritative parenting style is considered the best parenting style in child psychology. Authoritative parenting is consistently associated with the best outcomes in children’s outcomes, including social competence, academic achievement, mental health, physical health, behavior, and adjustment, according to a 2014 study, “Consequences of Parenting on Adolescent Outcomes,” conducted by Donna Hancock Hoskins of Bridgewater College and published in Societies.

What is the Unhealthiest Parenting Style for a Child?

The unhealthiest parenting style for a child is generally considered to be the uninvolved parenting style because it leaves the child without the basic necessities and emotional support they need to develop into healthy adults. Uninvolved or neglectful parenting style is linked most frequently to more serious delinquency trajectories in adolescent boys, according to a 2008 study, “Trajectories of Delinquency and Parenting Styles,” by Machteld Hoeve, Judith Semon Dubas, Rolf Loeber, et al., published in the Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology.

However, other studies have found that the authoritarian parenting style is just as detrimental as the uninvolved parenting style in some aspects. For example, both authoritarian parenting and uninvolved parenting are associated with the lowest levels of self-esteem and psychosocial maturity and the highest levels of emotional maladjustment, according to a 2019 study titled “Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and
Adult Development,” by Oscar F. Garcia and Emilia Serra of the University of Valencia, published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.

Can Two Parents Have Different Parenting Styles?

Yes, it is common for two parents to have different parenting styles, according to a 2020 systematic review of 31 studies from more than 15 countries with a total 20,359 sample size. This study, titled “Systematic review of the differences between mothers and fathers in parenting styles and practices,” is conducted by Yosi Yaffe in the Faculty of Education, Ohalo Academic College, and published in Current Psychology. The findings reveal that the children perceive mothers to be more accepting, responsive, supportive, and more behaviorally controlling, demanding, and autonomy-granting than fathers. Mothers are more authoritative than fathers, and fathers are more authoritarian than mothers, according to parents and children in the studies.

Can a Parent Change their Parenting Style?

Yes, parents can change their parenting style over time. Over half (53.6%) of adolescents experienced shifts in parenting styles in a 2014 Denmark study, “Parenting Style Transitions and Delinquency,” by Ryan D. Schroeder and Thomas J. Mowen, published in Youth & Society. The most common shift was from authoritative to permissive parenting. The shifts were likely driven by a combination of factors, including parents’ ongoing personal development, stressful life events (such as divorce or job loss), the child’s evolving behavior and needs, the inherently tumultuous nature of adolescence, and normal developmental processes as children age and require different levels of parental supervision and control.

Is Mixing Parenting Style a Good Idea?

Yes, mixing parenting styles is a good idea if at least one of the styles is the authoritative type. Multiple studies have shown that families with at least one authoritative parent have better outcomes than those without authoritative parents. Having two authoritative parents is optimal, while having two neglectful parents leads to the worst consequences, according to a 2011 study in the Netherlands titled “Maternal and Paternal Parenting Styles: Unique and Combined Links to Adolescent and Early Adult Delinquency” by Hoeve, Machteld, Judith Semon Dubas, et al., published in the Journal of Adolescence. Therefore, mixing parenting styles in psychology is beneficial when one or both styles are authoritative. Parents struggling to cooperatively raise children in situations such as divorce sometimes adopt parallel parenting to minimize interaction between parents and reduce conflicts.

How Does Parenting Style Affect Child Development?

Parenting style significantly affects child development across various domains, impacting children’s emotional, social, cognitive, and behavioral development. Different types of parenting styles have distinct impacts on child development in predictable ways.

Authoritative parenting, characterized by high warmth and control, is associated with the most favorable outcomes, including better cognitive development, higher self-esteem, and better social skills. Children with authoritative parents show fewer behavioral problems and better emotional regulation, according to a 2024 study titled “Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept,” by Sofie Kuppens and Eva Ceulemans, published in the Journal of Child and Family Studies.

Authoritarian parenting, marked by high control and low warmth, is linked to poorer outcomes. Children with authoritarian parents often show lower cognitive performance, higher levels of anxiety, and poorer social skills. Some children exhibit more behavioral problems and lower self-esteem due to the lack of emotional support and the use of stern, punitive disciplinary measures.

Permissive parenting, characterized by high warmth but low control, tends to lead to mixed outcomes in child development. Some children have high self-esteem and good social skills due to the supportive environment, but others struggle with self-discipline and exhibit more behavioral problems. Cognitive development is less optimal compared to children of authoritative parents, according to a 2017 study titled ” Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and Adult Development,” by Oscar F. Garcia and Emilia Serra, published in International journal of environmental research and public health.

Uninvolved parenting, marked by low warmth and low control, is associated with the worst outcomes. Children often show deficits in cognitive development, poor emotional regulation, low self-esteem, and significant behavioral problems. Uninvolved parenting is strongly linked to failure to thrive (FTT), a condition caused by inadequate nutrition and disturbed social interactions from the parent. The lack of involvement and support from uninvolved parents leads to poor weight gain, delayed development, and abnormal behavior in children in severe cases. These findings in negative child development are detailed in a 2005 study titled “Failure to Thrive as a Manifestation of Child Neglect,” by Block RW and Krebs NF., published in Pediatrics.

What are other Factors that Affect Child Growth and Development?

Other factors that affect child growth and development include genetics, attachment styles, family dynamics, nutrition, socioeconomic status, environment, and culture. Seven factors that affect children’s growth and development are listed below.

1. Genetics: Genetics influences a child’s physical attributes, susceptibility to certain diseases, and potential for cognitive abilities. Genetics also affect a child’s temperament and interactions with the environment.
2. Attachment Style: A secure attachment fosters emotional stability and confidence, while an insecure attachment often leads to emotional and social difficulties.
3. Family Dynamics: Positive family dynamics provide emotional support and stability, whereas negative dynamics tend to cause stress and behavioral issues.
4. Nutrition: Proper nutrition is crucial for physical growth, brain development, and overall health. Malnutrition often leads to developmental delays and health problems.
5. Socioeconomic status (SES): Higher SES often provides better access to education, healthcare, and enrichment activities. Lower SES limits these opportunities and increase stress.
6. Environment: A stimulating and safe environment encourages exploration and learning. A deprived or unsafe environment often hinder development.
7. Culture: Cultural values and practices shape social behaviors, learning styles, and developmental expectations, influencing a child’s growth and development trajectory.

How Does Parenting Style Affect Child Psychology?

Parenting style affects a child’s psychology by influencing their emotional health, social development, academic performance, and overall mental well-being. Different types of parenting styles have distinct impacts on a child’s psychology.

Authoritative parenting, marked by high warmth and demand, is associated with the best outcomes in a child’s psychological development. Children with authoritative parents tend to have better cognitive development, self-esteem, and social skills. Children often have fewer behavioral problems, better emotional regulation, and healthier mental well-being due to the supportive environment that encourages autonomy and self-discipline.

Authoritarian parenting, characterized by low warmth and high demand, is linked to poorer outcomes. Children with authoritarian parents often show lower cognitive performance, higher levels of anxiety, and poorer social skills. Children tend to have more behavioral problems and lower self-esteem due to the lack of emotional support and the use of punitive punishment. Children of authoritarian parents are at a higher risk of developing mental disorders, including anxiety and depression, according to a 2024 study from China titled “Parenting Style and Child Mental Health at Preschool Age: Evidence From Rural China.,” by Lei Wang et al., published in BMC Psychiatry.

Permissive parenting, marked by high warmth but low demand, leads to mixed child psychology outcomes. Some children develop high self-esteem due to the supportive environment, while others struggle with self-discipline and higher levels of anxiety and depression due to the lack of boundaries, structure, and guidance.

Uninvolved parenting, characterized by low warmth and demand, is associated with the worst outcomes. Children often show significant deficits in emotional regulation, higher levels of anxiety and depression, and lower self-esteem. The lack of parental involvement and support makes children feel unloved, hindering child psychology and mental health.

How Does Parenting Style Affect Attachment Style in Children?

Parenting style significantly affects children’s attachment style, shaping their emotional development, view of themselves and others, and future relationships. Attachment is the emotional bond between parents and children and is an essential element of human evolution. Attachment style is the process by which the bonding forms. A child’s attachment style affects their personality, behavior, and beliefs. Different types of parenting styles impact children’s attachment styles distinctively.

Authoritative parenting, characterized by high warmth and demand, is associated with secure attachment style development in children. Authoritative parents are responsive and support children’s autonomy, which fosters a sense of security and trust in the relationships.

Authoritarian parenting, marked by high control and low warmth, tends to result in an avoidant attachment style. The tyrannical and harsh parenting approach, combined with a lack of affection, often leads children to perceive such behavior as abusive. Children develop negative models of self and others, leading to mistrust of others and a dismissive attitude toward relationships. Avoidant individuals who become parents often replicate the cycle by adopting authoritarian parenting because their feelings of inadequacy drive them toward a controlling approach. This intergenerational transmission of trauma is detailed in a 2023 study from Iran titled “Relation of parenting child abuse based on attachment styles, parenting styles, and parental addictions,” conducted by Tahmine Bahmani et al. at Islamic Azad University and published in Current Psychology.

Permissive parenting is characterized by high warmth and low demand. Research on the link between permissive parenting and attachment style remains inconclusive, likely due to variations in how permissiveness is defined across studies. Some studies describe permissive parenting as highly responsive, while others view it as moderately permissive with minimal control. High responsiveness is a characteristic that is linked to secure attachment. Yet, permissive parenting was found to be negatively related to secure attachment and positively related to ambivalent attachment (anxious or preoccupied) in a 2019 study titled ” Narcissism and Attachment,” by Phebe Cramer, published in The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. Further studies are needed to confirm the relationship between permissive parenting and attachment styles.

Uninvolved parenting, marked by low warmth and low control, is associated with insecure attachment in children, particularly disorganized attachment. Researchers have found that 51% of children in a sample of predominantly neglected children recruited through child protective services develop disorganized attachment (fearful dismissive). The findings are detailed in a 2021 study from Canada titled “Disinhibited social engagement behaviors in young maltreated children: Dysfunctional behavior of biological parents and child attachment,” conducted by Lory Zephyr et al. at Université du Québec à Montréal and published in Child Abuse & Neglect.

Can Unhealthy Parenting Style Cause Mental Illness in Children?

Yes, unhealthy styles can contribute to the development of mental illness in children. Other contributing factors are genetic predisposition and neurobiological factors. Below is how different parenting styles are linked to children mental illness.

Authoritarian parenting is characterized by strict rules, harsh punishments, and a lack of emotional warmth. The controlling parenting style lowers children’s self-esteem and increases the risk of mental illness, including anxiety, depression, emotional regulation difficulty, and suicidal ideation.

Permissive parenting is marked by a lack of boundaries, inconsistent discipline, and an overabundance of leniency. The permitting parenting style lowers children’s self-control and impulse control, leading to increased risky behavior. Children of permissive parents tend to have suicidal behavior.

Uninvolved parenting is characterized by a lack of responsiveness or boundaries. Children with neglectful parents have high rates of depression and low self-regulation. These findings were detailed in a 2013 study titled “How Parenting Style Influences Children: A Review of Controlling, Guiding, and Permitting Parenting Styles on Children’s Behavior, Risk-Taking, Mental Health, and Academic Achievement,” conducted by Clare Merlin et al. at the College of William and Mary and published in The William & Mary Educational Review.

How Does Parenting Style Affect Motivation in Children?

Parenting style affects children’s motivation by influencing the type of motivation formed. Intrinsic motivation is the drive to perform an activity for its enjoyment. Extrinsic motivation is pursuing an activity to obtain an external outcome, such as getting a reward or avoiding punishment. Intrinsic motivation is considered a better type due to its more positive outcomes.

Authoritative parenting’s high responsiveness and demands are associated with intrinsic motivation. Authoritative parents use reasoning to motivate children. Children are often intrinsically motivated to learn, leading to better academic performance and self-efficacy. These findings are supported by a 2022 study titled “Authoritative Parenting Stimulates Academic Achievement, Also Partly via Self-Efficacy and Intention Towards Getting Good Grades,” by Hayek, Joyce et al., published in Plos one.

Authoritarian parenting’s low responsiveness and high demands are associated with lower intrinsic and higher extrinsic motivation. Authoritarian parents use rules and consequences to discipline. Children often comply with rules out of fear of punishment. Children tend to be unmotivated in the absence of their parents.

Permissive parenting’s high responsiveness and low demands are associated with mixed motivational outcomes. Children feel supported and confident, which is associated with intrinsic motivation. However, lacking structure and expectations often results in poor self-regulation and lower academic motivation. Permissive parents often use rewards to entice children, resulting in extrinsic motivation.

Uninvolved parenting’s low responsiveness and demands are associated with the poorest motivational outcomes. Children of neglectful parents often exhibit task-irrelevant behavior, passivity, and a lack of self-enhancing attributions. Children receive minimal support and encouragement to pursue their goals, leading to low academic motivation.

Should Expectant Mothers Pick A Parenting Style During Pregnancy?

Yes, expecting women should choose a parenting style during pregnancy by learning about the impact of different types of parenting on children. Parenting styles influence a child’s development, psychology, attachment styles, and outcomes. Understanding the impacts of parenting styles during pregnancy helps mothers choose and prepare for a responsive strategy that fits their lifestyle. Research shows that responsive parenting practices lead to secure attachment in children and more positive life outcomes. Choosing a responsive parenting style, like authoritative parenting, is one of the best things pregnant mothers do for their babies.

Here is a pregnancy calendar week-by-week for expecting parents to track their progress.

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